B.Ed OPTIONAL COURSE
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE – I
UNIT I Place, Goals and Objectives of Biology
Biology in the school curriculum – its claims for inclusion – Interdisciplinary approaches in the school curriculum – Various branches related to Life Science.
Goals and objectives of teaching Biology with reference to Bloom’s taxonomy- Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domains. Aims of teaching Biology at different levels – Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary.
Biology in the school curriculum
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Among the most important topics are five unifying principles that can be said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:
- Cells are the basic unit of life
- New species and inherited traits are the product of evolution
- Genes are the basic unit of heredity
- An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition
- Living organisms consume and transform energy.
Sub disciplines of biology are recognized on the basis of the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them: biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions of systems of biological molecules; cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organism; and ecology examines how various organisms interact and associate with their environment.
What is science?
The word "science" probably brings to mind many different pictures: a fat textbook, white lab coats and microscopes, an astronomer peering through a telescope, a naturalist in the rainforest, Einstein's equations scribbled on a chalkboard, the launch of the space shuttle, bubbling beakers …. All of those images reflect some aspect of science, but none of them provides a full picture because science has so many facets:
- Science is both a body of knowledge and a process. In school, science may sometimes seem like a collection of isolated and static facts listed in a textbook, but that's only a small part of the story. Just as importantly, science is also a process of discovery that allows us to link isolated facts into coherent and comprehensive understandings of the natural world.
- Science is exciting. Science is a way of discovering what's in the universe and how those things work today, how they worked in the past, and how they are likely to work in the future. Scientists are motivated by the thrill of seeing or figuring out something that no one has before.
- Science is useful. The knowledge generated by science is powerful and reliable. It can be used to develop new technologies, treat diseases, and deal with many other sorts of problems.
- Science is ongoing. Science is continually refining and expanding our knowledge of the universe, and as it does, it leads to new questions for future investigation. Science will never be "finished."
- Science is a global human endeavor. People all over the world participate in the process of science. And you can too!
Science is complex and multi-faceted, but the most important characteristics of science are straightforward:
- Science focuses exclusively on the natural world, and does not deal with supernatural explanations.
- Science is a way of learning about what is in the natural world, how the natural world works, and how the natural world got to be the way it is. It is not simply a collection of facts; rather it is a path to understanding.
- Scientists work in many different ways, but all science relies on testing ideas by figuring out what expectations are generated by an idea and making observations to find out whether those expectations hold true.
- Accepted scientific ideas are reliable because they have been subjected to rigorous testing, but as new evidence is acquired and new perspectives emerge these ideas can be revised.
- Science is a community endeavor. It relies on a system of checks and balances, which helps ensure that science moves in the direction of greater accuracy and understanding. This system is facilitated by diversity within the scientific community, which offers a broad range of perspectives on scientific ideas.
Too many, science may seem like an arcane, ivory-towered institution — but that impression is based on a misunderstanding of science. In fact:
- Science affects your life everyday in all sorts of different ways.
- Science can be fun and is accessible to everyone.
- You can apply an understanding of how science works to your everyday life.
- Anyone can become a scientist — of the amateur or professional variety.
Definitions of Science
· sci·ence
1. A branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws: the mathematical sciences.
2. Systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and experimentation.
4. systematized knowledge in general.
5. Knowledge, as of facts or principles; knowledge gained by systematic study.
6. A particular branch of knowledge.
7. Skill, especially reflecting a precise application of facts or principles; proficiency.
Definitions by goal and process
2. The organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can be verified or tested by further investigation.
3. any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology, physics, geology, or astronomy.
Academic Press Dictionary of Science & Technology
Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways in which this information can be organized into meaningful patterns. A primary aim of science is to collect facts (data). An ultimate purpose of science is to discern the order that exists between and amongst the various facts.
Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge. It is the systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. Science is about gaining a deeper and often useful understanding of the world.
The Nature of Normal Science
Normal science is the practice of gaining knowledge by using some paradigm. It therefore has a perspective, common rules, facts, and problems. Its task is to solidify, reify, and articulate the paradigm; quantify its predictions, extend it to new areas, and to develop the technology needed. It rejects the approbations of the lay. It does not attempt to answer all problems. It uses facts considered revealing to solve problems considered acute by the paradigm. It is to articulate accepted phenomena. Problems must be challenging but not hopeless. Frequently the paradigm and its rules are tacit, they cannot be articulated. The adequacy of a paradigm is judged by peers not lay.
Normal science is the finding of previously unpredicted phenomena and showing how that phenomenon is explainable with the existing paradigm. Finding unexplainable phenomena is not science; anyone can be capable of not explaining something. Brain damage helps enormously. Normal science does not produce new phenomena; it articulates those that the paradigm supplies. Extending the paradigm (showing how the paradigm explains previously unexplainable events) is mopping up and is where most scientists spend their lives.
A paradigm gains status because it handles problems that practitioners feel are important - not because it handles all problems.
1. Empirical work to articulate paradigm or theory. Determinants of physical constants / quantitative laws / determination of way to apply paradigm to new situation.
2. Facts without intrinsic interest which can be compared to predictions from the paradigm.
3. Class of facts that the paradigm has shown to be revealing of nature. To desert the paradigm is to cease practicing the science it defines. The task is to explain current problems with rules such that the majority of past findings are consistent, somewhat like a judge trying to be consistent with precedent, or trying to minimize sum of squared differences when determining a regression line.
Fact
1. Something that actually exists; reality; truth: Your fears have no basis in fact.
2. Something known to exist or to have happened: Space travel is now a fact.
3. A truth known by actual experience or observation; something known to be true: Scientists gather facts about plant growth.
4. Something said to be true or supposed to have happened: The facts given by the witness are highly questionable.
5. Law often, facts an actual or alleged event or circumstance, as distinguished from its legal effect or consequence. Compare question of fact, question of law.
There are four types of fact. The first type of fact cannot be proved by the experiments as we wish. We have to see this fact when it happens. The second type of fact can be seen and shown at any time. The third type of fact is the generalization i.e. one fact is associating with another fact. The fourth type is a theory but it is treated as fact because of the evidences to prove the theory.
BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
When we say science we know pretty well that includes not only physics and chemistry but also Biology. We can give three reasons to prove that Biology is also a science. They are:
1. Biology possesses the characters of other branches of science like practical, experiments, data and utility for the life. We know that all the three branches of science possess all these qualities. Biology also gives the same benefits to the society as the other branches.
2. Biology gives a complete and notable knowledge like other branches of science. We know that physics deals with instruments and equipments, chemistry deals with chemical substances and their combinations and biology deals with living organisms. So it gives a complete notable knowledge about living organisms.
3. Biology gives extra training in the scientific method. We know that scientific method is a method followed by scientists to develop science. While physics and chemistry gives training to the pupil in this method, Biology is expected to give extra training in this method. This is because it deals with living organisms and they have to face complex problems in their life. The pupils are expected to adopt the scientific method in order to find how the living organisms overcome the complex problems. So they get extra training in the scientific method by studying Biology. Because of these three reasons Biology is considered as science along with other branches of science.
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING BIOLOGY WITH REFERENCE TO BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains - Cognitive, Affective, Psychomotor Domains - design and evaluation toolkit for training and learning
Bloom's Taxonomy, (in full: 'Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains', or strictly speaking: Bloom's 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives') was initially (the first part) published in 1956 under the leadership of American academic and educational expert Dr Benjamin S Bloom. 'Bloom's Taxonomy' was originally created in and for an academic context, (the development commencing in 1948), when Benjamin Bloom chaired a committee of educational psychologists, based in American education, whose aim was to develop a system of categories of learning behaviour to assist in the design and assessment of educational learning. Bloom's Taxonomy has since been expanded over many years by Bloom and other contributors (notably Anderson and Krathwhol as recently as 2001, whose theories extend Bloom's work to far more complex levels than are explained here, and which are more relevant to the field of academic education than to corporate training and development).
Most corporate trainers and HR professionals, coaches and teachers, will benefit significantly by simply understanding the basics of Bloom's Taxonomy, as featured below. (If you want to know more, there is a vast amount of related reading and references, listed at the end of this summary explanation.)
Bloom's Taxonomy was primarily created for academic education; however it is relevant to all types of learning.
Interestingly, at the outset, Bloom believed that education should focus on 'mastery' of subjects and the promotion of higher forms of thinking, rather than a utilitarian approach to simply transferring facts. Bloom demonstrated decades ago that most teaching tended to be focused on fact-transfer and information recall - the lowest level of training - rather than true meaningful personal development, and this remains a central challenge for educators and trainers in modern times. Much corporate training is also limited to non-participative, unfeeling knowledge-transfer, (all those stultifying boring PowerPoint presentations...), which is reason alone to consider the breadth and depth approach exemplified in Bloom's model.
You might find it helpful now to see the Bloom Taxonomy overview. Did you realize there were all these potential dimensions to training and learning?
Development of bloom's taxonomy
Benjamin S Bloom (1913-99) attained degrees at Pennsylvania State University in 1935. He joined the Department of Education at the University of Chicago in 1940 and attained a PhD in Education in 1942, during which time he specialized in examining. Here he met his mentor Ralph Tyler with whom he first began to develop his ideas for developing a system (or 'taxonomy') of specifications to enable educational training and learning objectives to be planned and measured properly - improving the effectiveness of developing 'mastery' instead of simply transferring facts for mindless recall. Bloom continued to develop the Learning Taxonomy model through the 1960's, and was appointed Charles H Swift Distinguished Service Professor at Chicago in 1970. He served as adviser on education to several overseas governments including of Israel and India.
Bloom's (and his colleagues') initial attention was focused on the 'Cognitive Domain', which was the first published part of Bloom's Taxonomy, featured in the publication: 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwohl, 1956).
The 'Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain' (Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl) as the title implies, deals with the detail of the second domain, the 'Affective Domain', and was published in 1964.
Various people suggested detail for the third 'Psychomotor Domain', which explains why this domain detail varies in different representations of the complete Bloom Taxonomy. The three most popularly referenced versions of the Psychomotor Domain seem to be those of RH Dave (1967/70), EJ Simpson (1966/72), and AJ Harrow (1972).
As such 'Bloom's Taxonomy' describes the three-domain structure, within which the detail may vary, especially for the third domain.
Bloom's Taxonomy has therefore since 1956 provided a basis for ideas which have been used (and developed) around the world by academics, educators, teachers and trainers, for the preparation of learning evaluation materials, and also provided the platform for the complete 'Bloom's Taxonomy' (including the detail for the third 'Psychomotor Domain') as we see it today. Collectively these concepts which make up the whole Bloom Taxonomy continue to be useful and very relevant to the planning and design of: school, college and university education, adult and corporate training courses, teaching and lesson plans, and learning materials; they also serve as a template for the evaluation of: training, teaching, learning and development, within every aspect of education and industry.
Training or learning design and evaluation need not cover all aspects of the Taxonomy - just make sure there is coverage of the aspects that are appropriate.
As such, if in doubt about your training aims - check what's possible, and perhaps required, by referring to Bloom's Taxonomy.
Explanation of bloom's taxonomy
First, don't be put off by the language or the apparent complexity of Bloom's Taxonomy - at this basic level it's a relatively simple and logical model.
Taxonomy means 'a set of classification principles', or 'structure', and Domain simply means 'category'. Bloom and his colleagues were academics, looking at learning as a behavioural science, and writing for other academics, which is why they never called it 'Bloom's Learning Structure', which would perhaps have made more sense to people in the business world. (Interestingly this example of the use of technical language provides a helpful lesson in learning itself, namely, if you want to get an idea across to people, you should try to use language that your audience will easily recognize and understand.)
Bloom's Taxonomy underpins the classical 'Knowledge, Attitude, Skills' structure of learning method and evaluation, and aside from the even simpler Kirkpatrick learning evaluation model, Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains remains the most widely used system of its kind in education particularly, and also industry and corporate training. It's easy to see why, because it is such a simple, clear and effective model, both for explanation and application of learning objectives, teaching and training methods, and measurement of learning outcomes.
Bloom's Taxonomy provides an excellent structure for planning, designing, assessing and evaluating training and learning effectiveness. The model also serves as a sort of checklist, by which you can ensure that training is planned to deliver all the necessary development for students, trainees or learners, and a template by which you can assess the validity and coverage of any existing training, be it a course, a curriculum, or an entire training and development programme for a large organization.
It is fascinating that Bloom's Taxonomy model (1956/64) and Kirkpatrick's learning evaluation model (1959) remain classical reference models and tools into the 21st century. This is because concepts such as Bloom's Taxonomy, Kirkpatrick's model, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Mcgregor's XY Theory, The SWOT analysis model, and Berne's Transactional Analysis theory, to name a few other examples, are timeless, and as such will always be relevant to the understanding and development of people and organizations. Bloom’s taxonomy definitions
Bloom's Taxonomy model is in three parts, or 'overlapping domains'. Again, Bloom used rather academic language, but the meanings are simple to understand:
- Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, i.e., knowledge, or 'think')
- Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behaviour, i.e., attitude, or 'feel')
- Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, i.e., skills, or 'do')
This has given rise to the obvious short-hand variations on the theme which summaries the three domains; for example, Skills-Knowledge-Attitude, KAS, Do-Think-Feel, etc.
Various people have since built on Bloom's work, notably in the third domain, the 'psychomotor' or skills, which Bloom originally identified in a broad sense, but which he never fully detailed. This was apparently because Bloom and his colleagues felt that the academic environment held insufficient expertise to analyze and create a suitable reliable structure for the physical ability 'Psychomotor' domain. While this might seem strange, such caution is not uncommon among expert and highly specialized academics - they strive for accuracy as well as innovation. In Bloom's case it is as well that he left a few gaps for others to complete the detail; the model seems to have benefited from having several different contributors fill in the detail over the years, such as Anderson, Krathwhol, Masia, Simpson, Harrow and Dave (these last three having each developed versions of the third 'Psychomotor' domain).
In each of the three domains Bloom's Taxonomy is based on the premise that the categories are ordered in degree of difficulty. An important premise of Bloom's Taxonomy is that each category (or 'level') must be mastered before progressing to the next. As such the categories within each domain are levels of learning development, and these levels increase in difficulty.
The simple matrix structure enables a checklist or template to be constructed for the design of learning programmes, training courses, lesson plans, etc. Effective learning - especially in organizations, where training is to be converted into organizational results - should arguably cover all the levels of each of the domains, where relevant to the situation and the learner.
The learner should benefit from development of knowledge and intellect (Cognitive Domain); attitude and beliefs (Affective Domain); and the ability to put physical and bodily skills into effect - to act (Psychomotor Domain).
Here's a really simple adapted 'at-a-glance' representation of Bloom's Taxonomy. The definitions are intended to be simple modern day language, to assist explanation and understanding. This simple overview can help you (and others) to understand and explain the taxonomy. Refer back to it when considering and getting to grips with the detailed structures - this overview helps to clarify and distinguish the levels.
For the more precise original Bloom Taxonomy terminology and definitions see the more detailed domain structures beneath this at-a-glance model. It's helpful at this point to consider also the ‘conscious competence' learning stages model, which provides a useful perspective for all three domains, and the concept of developing competence by stages in sequence.
| Cognitive | Affective | Psychomotor |
| knowledge | attitude | skills |
| 1. Recall data | 1.Receive (awareness) | 1. Imitation (copy) |
| 2. Understand | 2. Respond (react) | 2. Manipulation (follow instructions) |
| 3. Apply (use) | 3. Value (understand and act) | 3. Develop Precision |
| 4.Analyse (structure/elements) | 4. Organize personal value system | 4.Articulation (combine, integrate related skills) |
| 5.Synthesize (create/build) | 5. Internalize value system (adopt behaviour) | 5.Naturalization (automate, become expert) |
| 6. Evaluate (assess, judge in relational terms) | | |
(Detail of Bloom's Taxonomy Domains: 'Cognitive Domain' - 'Affective Domain' - 'Psychomotor Domain')
N.B. In the Cognitive Domain, levels 5 and 6, Synthesis and Evaluation, were subsequently inverted by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001. Anderson and Krathwhol also developed a complex two-dimensional extension of the Bloom Taxonomy, which is not explained here. If you want to learn more about the bleeding edge of academic educational learning and evaluation there is a list of further references below. For most mortals in teaching and training what's on this page is probably enough to make a start, and a big difference.
Note also that the Psychomotor Domain featured above is based on the domain detail established by RH Dave (who was a student of Bloom) in 1967 (conference paper) and 1970 (book). The Dave model is the simplest and generally easiest to apply in the corporate development environment. Alternative Psychomotor Domains structures have been suggested by others, notably Harrow and Simpson's models detailed below. I urge you explore the Simpson and Harrow Psychomotor Domain alternatives - especially for the development of children and young people, and for developing skills in adults that take people out of their comfort zones. This is because the Simpson and Harrow models offer different emotional perspectives and advantages, which are useful for certain learning situations, and which do not appear so obviously in the structure of the Dave model.
Bloom's Taxonomy in more detailed structure follows, with more formal terminology and definitions. Refer back to the Bloom Taxonomy overview any time you need to refresh or clarify your perception of the model. It is normal to find that the extra detail can initially cloud the basic structure - which is actually quite simple - so it's helpful to keep the simple overview to hand.
Bloom’s taxonomy learning domains - detailed structures
Bloom's Taxonomy 1956 Cognitive Domain is as follows. An adjusted model was produced by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001 in which the levels five and six (synthesis and evaluation) were inverted (reference: Anderson & Krathwhol, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2001). This is why you will see different versions of this Cognitive Domain model. Debate continues as to the order of levels five and six, which is interesting given that Bloom's Taxonomy states that the levels must be mastered in order.
In my humble opinion it's possible to argue either case (Synthesis then Evaluation, or vice-versa) depending on the circumstances and the precise criteria stated or represented in the levels concerned, plus the extent of 'creative thinking' and 'strategic authority' attributed to or expected at the 'Synthesis' level. In short - pick the order which suits your situation.
| cognitive domain | ||||
| level | category or 'level' | behaviour descriptions | examples of activity to be trained, or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Knowledge | recall or recognise information | multiple-choice test, recount facts or statistics, recall a process, rules, definitions; quote law or procedure | arrange, define, describe, label, list, memorise, recognise, relate, reproduce, select, state |
| 2 | Comprehension | understand meaning, re-state data in one's own words, interpret, extrapolate, translate | explain or interpret meaning from a given scenario or statement, suggest treatment, reaction or solution to given problem, create examples or metaphors | explain, reiterate, reword, critique, classify, summarise, illustrate, translate, review, report, discuss, re-write, estimate, interpret, theories, paraphrase, reference, example |
| 3 | Application | use or apply knowledge, put theory into practice, use knowledge in response to real circumstances | put a theory into practical effect, demonstrate, solve a problem, manage an activity | use, apply, discover, manage, execute, solve, produce, implement, construct, change, prepare, conduct, perform, react, respond, role-play |
| 4 | Analysis | interpret elements, organizational principles, structure, construction, internal relationships; quality, reliability of individual components | identify constituent parts and functions of a process or concept, or de-construct a methodology or process, making qualitative assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; measure requirements or needs | analyze, break down, catalogue, compare, quantify, measure, test, examine, experiment, relate, graph, diagram, plot, extrapolate, value, divide |
| 5 | Synthesis (create/build) | develop new unique structures, systems, models, approaches, ideas; creative thinking, operations | develop plans or procedures, design solutions, integrate methods, resources, ideas, parts; create teams or new approaches, write protocols or contingencies | develop, plan, build, create, design, organize, revise, formulate, propose, establish, assemble, integrate, re-arrange, modify |
| 6 | Evaluation | assess effectiveness of whole concepts, in relation to values, outputs, efficacy, viability; critical thinking, strategic comparison and review; judgement relating to external criteria | review strategic options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-effectiveness, practicability; assess sustainability; perform a SWOT analysis in relation to alternatives; produce a financial justification for a proposition or venture, calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; perform a detailed and costed risk analysis with recommendations and justifications | review, justify, assess, present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage |
Based on the 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwhol) 1956. This table is adapted and reproduced with permission from Allyn & Bacon, Boston USA, being the publishers and copyright owners of 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives' (Bloom et al 1956).
Note that levels 5 and 6, Synthesis and Evaluation, were subsequently inverted by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001, on which point:
Cognitive domain - order ranking of 'synthesis' and 'evaluation'
The question of the order of Synthesis and Evaluation is dependent upon the extent of strategic expectation and authority that is built into each, which depends on your situation. Hence it is possible to make a case for Bloom's original order shown above, or Anderson and Krathwhol version of 2001 (which simply inverts levels 5 and 6).
The above version is the original, and according to the examples and assumptions presented in the above matrix, is perfectly appropriate and logical. I also personally believe the above order to be appropriate for corporate and industrial training and development if 'Evaluation' is taken to represent executive or strategic assessment and decision-making, which is effectively at the pinnacle of the corporate intellect-set.
The inversion of Synthesis and Evaluation carries a risk unless it is properly qualified. This is because the highest skill level absolutely must involve strategic evaluation; effective management - especially of large activities or organizations - relies on strategic evaluation. And clearly, strategic evaluation is by implication included in the 'Evaluation' category.
I would also argue that in order to evaluate properly and strategically, we need first to have learned and experienced the execution of the strategies (ie, to have completed the synthesis step) that we intend to evaluate.
However, you should feel free to invert levels 5 and 6 if warranted by your own particular circumstances, particularly if your interpretation of 'Evaluation' is non-strategic, and not linked to decision-making. Changing the order of the levels is warranted if local circumstances alter the degree of difficulty. Remember, the taxonomy is based in the premise that the degree of difficulty increases through the levels - people need to learn to walk before they can run - it's that simple. So, if your situation causes 'Synthesis' to be more challenging than 'Evaluation', then change the order of the levels accordingly (i.e., invert 5 and 6 like Anderson and Krathwhol did), so that you train people in the correct order.
Bloom's Taxonomy second domain, the Affective Domain, was detailed by Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia in 1964 (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Volume II, The Affective Domain. Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia.) Bloom's theory advocates this structure and sequence for developing attitude - also now commonly expressed in the modern field of personal development as 'beliefs'. Again, as with the other domains, the Affective Domain detail provides a framework for teaching, training, assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of training and lesson design and delivery, and also the retention by and affect upon the learner or trainee.
| affective domain | ||||
| level | category or 'level' | behaviour descriptions | examples of experience, or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Receive | open to experience, willing to hear | listen to teacher or trainer, take interest in session or learning experience, take notes, turn up, make time for learning experience, participate passively | ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel |
| 2 | Respond | react and participate actively | participate actively in group discussion, active participation in activity, interest in outcomes, enthusiasm for action, question and probe ideas, suggest interpretation | react, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform |
| 3 | Value | attach values and express personal opinions | decide worth and relevance of ideas, experiences; accept or commit to particular stance or action | argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticize, |
| 4 | Organise or Conceptualize values | reconcile internal conflicts; develop value system | qualify and quantify personal views, state personal position and reasons, state beliefs | build, develop, formulate, defend, modify, relate, priorities, reconcile, contrast, arrange, compare |
| 5 | Internalize or characterize values | adopt belief system and philosophy | self-reliant; behave consistently with personal value set | act, display, influence, solve, practice, |
Based on the 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Volume 2, The Affective Domain' (Bloom, Masia, Krathwhol) 1964. See also 'Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwhol) 1956. This table is adapted and reproduced with permission from Allyn & Bacon, Boston USA, being the publishers and copyright owners of 'Taxonomy of Educational Objectives' (Bloom et al 1956).
This domain for some people can be a little trickier to understand than the others. The differences between the levels, especially between 3, 4, and 5, are subtle, and not so clear as the separations elsewhere in the Taxonomy. You will find it easier to understand if you refer back to the bloom's taxonomy learning domains at-a-glance.
The Psychomotor Domain was ostensibly established to address skills development relating to manual tasks and physical movement, however it also concerns and covers modern day business and social skills such as communications and operation IT equipment, for example telephone and keyboard skills, or public speaking. Thus, 'motor' skills extend beyond the originally traditionally imagined manual and physical skills, so always consider using this domain, even if you think your environment is covered adequately by the Cognitive and Affective Domains. Whatever the training situation, it is likely that the Psychomotor Domain is significant. The Dave version of the Psychomotor Domain is featured most prominently here because in my view it is the most relevant and helpful for work- and life-related development, although the Psychomotor Domains suggested by Simpson and Harrow are more relevant and helpful for certain types of adult training and development, as well as the teaching and development of young people and children, so do explore them all. Each has its uses and advantages.
Dave’s psychomotor domain taxonomy
| psychomotor domain (dave) | ||||
| level | category or 'level' | behaviour descriptions | examples of activity or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Imitation | copy action of another; observe and replicate | watch teacher or trainer and repeat action, process or activity | copy, follow, replicate, repeat, adhere |
| 2 | Manipulation | reproduce activity from instruction or memory | carry out task from written or verbal instruction | re-create, build, perform, execute, implement |
| 3 | Precision | execute skill reliably, independent of help | perform a task or activity with expertise and to high quality without assistance or instruction; able to demonstrate an activity to other learners | demonstrate, complete, show, perfect, calibrate, control, |
| 4 | Articulation | adapt and integrate expertise to satisfy a non-standard objective | relate and combine associated activities to develop methods to meet varying, novel requirements | construct, solve, combine, coordinate, integrate, adapt, develop, formulate, modify, master |
| 5 | Naturalization | automated, unconscious mastery of activity and related skills at strategic level | define aim, approach and strategy for use of activities to meet strategic need | design, specify, manage, invent, project-manage |
Based on RH Dave's version of the Psychomotor Domain ('Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives', 1970. The theory was first presented at a Berlin conference 1967, hence you may see Dave's model attributed to 1967 or 1970).
It is also useful to refer to the 'Conscious Competence' model, which arguably overlays, and is a particularly helpful perspective for explaining and representing the 'Psychomotor' domain, and notably Dave's version. (The 'Conscious Competence' model also provides a helpful perspective for the other two domains - Cognitive and Affective, and for the alternative Psychomotor Domains suggested by Harrow and Simpson below.)
Alternative psychomotor domain taxonomy versions
Dave's Psychomotor Domain above is probably the most commonly referenced and used psychomotor domain interpretation. There are certainly two others; Simpson's, and Harrow's.
It's worth exploring and understanding the differences between the three Psychomotor Domain interpretations. Certainly each is different and has a different use.
In my view the Dave model is adequate and appropriate for most adult training in the workplace.
For young children, or for adults learning entirely new and challenging physical skills (which may require some additional attention to awareness and perception, and mental preparation), or for anyone learning skills which involve expression of feeling and emotion, then the Simpson or Harrow models can be more useful because they more specifically address these issues.
Simpson's version is particularly useful if you are taking adults out of their comfort zones, because it addresses sensory, perception (and by implication attitudinal) and preparation issues. For example anything fearsome or threatening, like emergency routines, conflict situations, tough physical tasks or conditions.
Harrow's version is particularly useful if you are developing skills which are intended ultimately to express, convey and/or influence feelings, because its final level specifically addresses the translation of bodily activities (movement, communication, body language, etc) into conveying feelings and emotion, including the effect on others. For example, public speaking, training itself, and high-level presentation skills.
The Harrow and Simpson models are also appropriate for other types of adult development. For example, teaching adults to run a difficult meeting, or make a parachute jump, will almost certainly warrant attention on sensory perception and awareness, and on preparing oneself mentally, emotionally, and physically. In such cases therefore, Simpson's or Harrow's model would be more appropriate than Dave's.
Elizabeth Simpson's interpretation of the Psychomotor domain differs from Dave's chiefly because it contains extra two levels prior to the initial imitation or copy stage. Arguably for certain situations, Simpson's first two levels, 'Perception' and 'Set' stage are assumed or incorporated within Dave's first 'Imitation' level, assuming that you are dealing with fit and healthy people (probably adults rather than young children), and that 'getting ready' or 'preparing oneself' is part of the routine to be taught, learned or measured. If not, then the more comprehensive Simpson version might help ensure that these two prerequisites for physical task development are checked and covered. As such, the Simpson model or the Harrow version is probably preferable than the Dave model for the development of young children.
| psychomotor domain (Simpson) | ||||
| level | category or 'level' | description | examples of activity or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Perception | awareness | use and/or selection of senses to absorb data for guiding movement | recognize, distinguish, notice, touch , hear, feel, etc |
| 2 | Set | readiness | mental, physical or emotional preparation before experience or task | arrange, prepare, get set |
| 3 | Guided Response | attempt | imitate or follow instruction, trial and error | imitate, copy, follow, try |
| 4 | Mechanism | basic proficiency | competently respond to stimulus for action | make, perform, shape, complete |
| 5 | Complex Overt Response | expert proficiency | execute a complex process with expertise | coordinate, fix, demonstrate |
| 6 | Adaptation | adaptable proficiency | alter response to reliably meet varying challenges | adjust, integrate, solve |
| 7 | Origination | creative proficiency | develop and execute new integrated responses and activities | design, formulate, modify, re-design, trouble-shoot |
Adapted and simplified representation of Simpson's Psychomotor Domain ('The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain', 1972). Elizabeth Simpson seems actually to have first presented her Psychomotor Domain interpretation in 1966 in the Illinois Journal of Home Economics. Hence you may see the theory attributed to either 1966 or 1972.
harrow's psychomotor domain taxonomy
Harrow's interpretation of the Psychomotor domain is strongly biased towards the development of physical fitness, dexterity and agility, and control of the physical 'body', to a considerable level of expertise. As such the Harrow model is more appropriate to the development of young children's bodily movement, skills, and expressive movement than, say, the development of a corporate trainee's keyboard skills. By the same token, the Harrow model would be perhaps more useful for the development of adult public speaking or artistic performance skills than Dave's or Simpson's, because the Harrow model focuses on the translation of physical and bodily activity into meaningful expression. The Harrow model is the only one of the three Psychomotor Domain versions which specifically implies emotional influence on others within the most expert level of bodily control, which to me makes it rather special.
As ever, choose the framework that best fits your situation, and the needs and aims of the trainees or students.
| psychomotor domain (harrow) | ||||
| level | category or 'level' | description | examples of activity or demonstration and evidence to be measured | 'key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level) |
| 1 | Reflex Movement | involuntary reaction | respond physically instinctively | react, respond |
| 2 | Basic Fundamental Movements | basic simple movement | alter position, move, perform simple action | grasp, walk, stand, throw |
| 3 | Perceptual Abilities | basic response | use than one ability in response to different sensory perceptions | catch, write, explore, distinguish using senses |
| 4 | Physical Abilities | fitness | develop strength, endurance, agility, control | endure, maintain, repeat, increase, improve, exceed |
| 5 | Skilled Movements | complex operations | execute and adapt advanced, integrated movements | drive, build, juggle, play a musical instrument, craft |
| 6 | Non-discursive Communication | meaningfully expressive activity or output | activity expresses meaningful interpretation | express and convey feeling and meaning through movement and actions |
Adapted and simplified representation of Harrow's Psychomotor Domain (1972). (Non-discursive means intuitively direct and well expressed.)
in conclusion
Bloom's Taxonomy is a wonderful reference model for all involved in teaching, training, learning, coaching - in the design, delivery and evaluation of these development methods. At its basic level the Taxonomy provides a simple, quick and easy checklist to start to plan any type of personal development. It helps to open up possibilities for all aspects of the subject or need concerned, and suggests a variety of the methods available for delivery of teaching and learning. As with any checklist, it also helps to reduce the risks of overlooking some vital aspects of the development required.
The more detailed elements within each domain provide additional reference points for learning design and evaluation, whether for a single lesson, session or activity, or training need, or for an entire course, programme or syllabus, across a large group of trainees or students, or a whole organization.
And at its most complexes, Bloom's Taxonomy is continuously evolving, through the work of academics following in the footsteps of Bloom's early associates, as a fundamental concept for the development of formalized education across the world.
As with so many of the classical models involving the development of people and organizations, you actually have a choice as to how to use Bloom's Taxonomy. It's a tool - or more aptly - a toolbox. Tools are most useful when the user controls them; not vice-versa.
The Major Aims and Objectives
Harmonious development of child's personality and social efficiency etc. are the general aims of education. If science teaching is to be made effective, then its aims should be in consonance with the general aims of education. We deal with the following main objectives of science teaching.
A. Knowledge. This aim has received the top priority as compared to other aims. Pupils studying general science should acquire the knowledge of:
(i) Fundamental principles and concepts useful in daily life.
(ii) Facts for science study.
(iii) Inter-dependence and relationship of different branches of science.
(iv) Knowledge of plants and animals.
(v) Natural phenomena going on.
(vi) Knowledge of general rules of health and human body etc.
B. Skills.
Science students should acquire skills in experimentation,, construction, observation, drawing etc. Experimentation and construction skills include handling, arranging, preserving, and repairing scientific instruments.
C. Abilities.
The general science teaching should develop certain abilities such as ability to
(i) Sense a problem (ii) organize and interpret
(iii) Analyse
(iv) Generalise
(v) Predict
(vi) Organise exhibitions, excursions and fairs
(vii) Discuss, argue and express scientific terminology
(viii) Improvise and manipulate instruments using his acquire knowledge.
D. Attitudes.
Science teaching directly inculcates the scientific attitudes among the students. So the students should be taught directly and systematically and every individual should be paid heed to ascertain that he develops the desired attitudes and practices them. A man with the scientific attitude is
(a) Critical in observation and thought
(b) Open-minded
(c) Respectful of others' view point and is ready to discuss his problems with others and accepts what appears correct.
(d) In search of the answers to 'What's' and 'Whys' and 'How's' of the things he observes and accepts the natural things as such.
(e) Objective in his approach to problems.
(f) Not a believer of superstitions and misbelieves.
(g) Follower of cause and effect relationship.
(h) Truthful in his experimentation and conclusions.
(i) Impartial and unbiased in his judgments.
(j) Adopts planned procedure in solving a problem.
E. Reflective Thinking.
With the above attitudes developed, a science student will handle a problem scientifically. He will sense a problem, define it, collect evidence, organize and interpret the data, formulate the hypothesis, test its validity and finally draw conclusions impartially. The training in the scientific method should be one of the important aims of teaching science.
F. Habits.
Certain socially desirable habits like honesty, truth, tolerance, self-confidence, self-reliance etc. should be inculcated through the science teaching.
G. Interests.
The teaching of science should also aim at developing some interests in reading scioentific literature, in scientific hobbies, in activities of clubs, excursions, in natural phenomena; in drawing, in leadership, etc. The motivational techniques like rewards and punishments, praise and blame, rivalry and emulation etc. should be implied by the teacher.
H. Appreciation.
The appreciation of natural beauty, scientific inventions, scientists, endeavour is the outcome of science teaching. For the purpose the teacher should arrange outings, should relate the life histories of scientists and should keep the students in touch with the new inventions in science.
I. Providing Work for Leisure.
As the empty mind is devil's workshop, a science student should not while away his leisure. He can prepare inks, soaps, boot polishes and other daily useful things or he can keep hobbies of stamp collecting, coin collecting, photography, drawing, gardening, study of plants and animals or of minerals etc. He can learn to improvise certain instruments, learn to play for musical instruments along with its construction knowledge.
J. Training for Better Living.
A science student should know the ways and means of prevention and eradication of diseases to maintain good health, and should be able to adjust himself with his own domestic, social environment and economic and cultural conditions.
K. Forming Basis for Career.
The attitudes and interests of the students should well be adjudged by the science teachers and they should impart them the knowledge accordingly so that they may prosecute the desired professions. An artist can never be a doctor. So nothing should be forced into the minds of the students. Acceleration should be provided in his own direction to get a suitable vocation and fit himself well in society and prove an asset to it.
The aims and objectives differ a bit at different stages. Preliminary knowledge of objectives is required at early stages while complete and complex objectives are needed at higher stages. So capabilities of pupils should be kept in mind.
The aims and objectives of Teaching Science at different stages have been summarized in the proceedings of the All India Seminar on the Teaching of Science in Secondary Schools, published by Ministry of Education in 1956. They are as follows:
1. Primary Level
The aims and objectives of Teaching Science at Primary School level should be
1. Arousing and maintaining interest in nature and in the physical and social environment, arousing love for nature and its sources.
2. Developing the habit of observation, exploration, classification and systematic way of thinking.
3. Developing the child's powers of manipulative, creative and inventive faculties.
4. Developing neat and orderly habits.
5. Inculcation of habits of healthful living.
2. Middle School Level
In addition to the above, the following aims and objectives are suitable for inculcation at the Middle School, level.
1. Acquisition of a kind of information concerning nature and science which may also serve as the basis for a late General Science Course.
2. Developing the ability to reach generalisation and to apply them for solving every problem.
3. Understanding the impact of science upon one way of life.
4. Developing interest in scientific hobbies.
5. Inspiring children by stories about scientists and their discoveries.
3. High and Higher Secondary Levels
At the high and higher secondary stage, the aims of General Science teaching should be,
1. To familiarize the pupil with the world in which he lives and to make him understand the impact of science on society so as to enable him adjust himself to his environment.
2. To acquaint him with the 'scientific method' and to enable him to develop the scientific attitude.
3. To give the pupil a historical perspective, so that he may understand the evolution of the scientific development.
.M. Kothari Commission (1964-66)-10+2 Pattern
The Indian Education Commission (1964-66) has suggested the aims and objectives of teaching science at various levels:
1. Lower Primary Stage
(i) At the lower primary stage the accent should be on the child's environment-social, physical and biological.
(ii) In classes I and II, the accent should be on cleanliness and formation of healthy habits.
(iii) Development of power of observation.
(iv) In classes III and IV the study should also include personal hygiene and sanitation.
(v) In classes IV and V children should be taught the roman alphabets. This is essential as the internationally accepted symbols for the units of the scientific measurement and the symbols for chemical elements and compounds are written in the Roman alphabet.
(vi) Developing proper understanding of the main facts, concepts, principles and processes in the physical and biological environment.
2. Higher Primary Stage
(i) At this stage emphasis may shift to the acquisition of knowledge together with the ability to think logically, to draw conclusions and to make decisions at a higher level.
Hi) Science should be taught as physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy. A disciplinary approach to science learning instead of general science would be more effective in providing the necessary scientific base to young people.
3. Secondary stage
(i) At the secondary stage science should be taught as a discipline of the mind and a preparation for higher education.
(ii)At the lower secondary class's physics, chemistry, biology and earth sciences should be taught as compulsory subjects.
(iii) At the higher secondary stage there should be diversification of courses and provision for specialisation.
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